By Luke Sumpter


Considering for some that it only takes a few hits from a joint to induce the munchies, it makes logical sense to conclude that cannabis stimulates appetite. Plenty of research also indicates that activation of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) can alter hunger hormones and drive food intake. But the relationship between cannabis and appetite remains complex and nuanced. Different cannabinoids have varying effects on appetite, and both the short-term and long-term use of cannabis affects hunger, energy balance, and metabolism uniquely. Below, you’ll discover the physiology of appetite, how different components of cannabis affect this response, and if the herb can help manage conditions that revolve around an increased or decreased desire to take in calories.

How Appetite Works

Appetite—we wouldn’t last very long without it. But what is appetite? And exactly how does the mass of 30 trillion cells (a.k.a our bodies) convince us to get up and find some calories? Well, it all arises from the homeostatic interplay between specific brain regions, cells throughout the body, and hunger hormones.

Did you skip breakfast today? Then maybe you felt that growling sensation in your stomach? The rumbling feeling stems from the release of a chemical called ghrelin—a hormone primarily produced by specialized cells that line the stomach. Ghrelin plays many roles in the body, and nutrient sensing[1], meal initiation, and appetite are among these. Following its release, ghrelin enters systemic circulations and makes its way to the brain. Here, it acts on receptors in the hypothalamus, a gland in the brain tasked with controlling the endocrine system and regulating appetite and food intake.

The hypothalamus houses two primary populations of nerve cells that either stimulate or suppress appetite. One of these populations releases hunger-driving proteins known as neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related peptide (AGRP). The other manufactures hunger-lessening proteins known as cocaine and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART), and melanocyte-stimulating hormone (AMSH). When ghrelin acts on the hypothalamus, it increases the activity of nerve cells that release the hunger proteins, while dismissing the activity of those that produce hunger-lessening proteins.

This cascade of events seems complex when considering the inner workings of the endocrine and nervous systems. But from an outside view, it involves you putting down a joint and going to grab a burger or reaching out for sweets. But hunger physiology doesn’t stop there. A constant barrage of ghrelin would lead us to keep eating until we do some real damage. In the interest of homeostasis, the signals from the stomach and other organs start to shift as the stomach fills. Ghrelin levels start to drop off. In addition, leptin from fat cells, cholecystokinin from the upper small bowel, and amylin and insulin from the pancreas all influence the hypothalamus to inhibit the feeling of hunger.

How Appetite Works
  • Appetite vs hunger

Appetite and hunger are often used interchangeably, but they don’t mean exactly the same thing. Hunger refers to the physiological processes that govern homeostatic eating—all of the cascades of hormones, proteins, and nervous system signalling. We depend on homeostatic feeding for basic metabolic processes and survival.

In contrast, appetite refers to the desire to eat. While appetite often arises from hunger, it also depends on other variables such as stress and emotions and environmental factors. Compared to homeostatic eating, hedonic eating[2] refers to ingesting food based on sensory perception and pleasure, despite metabolic needs already being met. Low appetite also often occurs in patients undergoing chemotherapy, or those that experience eating disorders. Despite the physiological call for hunger, a reduced appetite leads to lower food intake, weight loss, and other issues.

The Endocannabinoid System and Metabolism

The ECS governs homeostasis across many physiological systems in the body, including the skeletal, nervous, and immune systems. And—you guessed it—the ECS also plays a critical role when it comes to energy balance and metabolism. Before we get into just how much sway the ECS holds over these chemical processes, let’s pull it apart a bit.

The classical ECS features three primary components: Receptors, signalling molecules, and enzymes. These include the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) and cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2), two major signalling molecules known as endocannabinoids named anandamide and 2-AG, and several enzymes that manufacture and breakdown these endocannabinoids. That doesn’t sound too complicated, right? But it doesn’t end there.

Recently, researchers have expanded the ECS into a larger model labelled the endocannabinoidome[3] that features many more signalling molecules, 20 enzymes, and over 20 receptors. Together, these components help to facilitate many of the ongoing chemical processes in the body that fall under the umbrella of human metabolism. ECS receptors are found in adipose tissue (fat), muscle, liver, and pancreas, and endocannabinoids target these sites[4] to regulate energy homeostasis across the body.

  • Weed and Food: CB1 and CB2 receptors

Because phytocannabinoids (those derived from plants) and synthetic cannabinoids share a similar structure to endocannabinoids, they’re also able to bind to ECS receptors and cause similar cellular changes and biochemical cascades. Something as simple as tweaking the ECS with these molecules results in different outcomes depending on which are used.

As you know, consuming THC will cause a surge in appetite in most people. Why? Because the cannabinoid binds to the CB1 receptor as an agonist, meaning it raises the activity of the receptor above its baseline. However, there’s a caveat here. Several endocannabinoids found in the body also target CB1 as agonists—resulting in a dysregulation[5] of the ECS that leads to overactivation, which may give rise to an incessant appetite and contribute to states such as obesity.

As researchers started to view CB1 as a promising target for obesity, they set about developing drugs that would interact with the site in a different manner. Inverse agonists of CB1, like the drug Rimonabant[6], have the opposite effect of THC, reducing the activity of the receptor below the baseline. While the drug initially looked successful, it failed due to its scattershot mechanism. By interfacing with CB1 receptors, it also tampered with mood, and many patients experienced psychiatric side effects such as suicidal thoughts.

The CB2 receptor also holds influence over food intake but in an almost entirely opposite fashion. Mouse models[7] show that CB2 agonists, such as the fatty acid palmitoylethanolamide (simply known as PEA), reduced food consumption, whereas the synthetic CB2 antagonist AM 630 increased food consumption.

How Appetite Works

Cannabis and Appetite

For most, the munchies are a novel, hedonistic, and fun experience. However, the potential of cannabis to modulate appetite spans far past the realm of recreation for many. As research in this field continues to develop, constituents of the herb could offer solutions to those experiencing conditions such as obesity, eating disorders, and medication side effects.

  • Obesity

The cautionary tale of Rimonabant left researchers cautious when tweaking the ECS with synthetic cannabinoids. However, other natural components of the cannabis plant also display promise in this area. Unlike THC, THCV (tetrahydrocannabivarin) doesn’t produce psychoactive effects because of the way it interacts with CB1. This analogue of THC can behave as both an agonist and antagonist of the receptor depending on the dose. Ongoing animal studies[8] are exploring the molecule as an antagonist of the site to see how it influences appetite, weight loss, obesity, satiety, and the upregulation of energy metabolism.

  • Eating disorders

The ability of THC and other CB1 agonists to ramp up appetite makes them promising future treatment options in eating disorders such as anorexia. Few human trials have yet tested cannabis for the range of existing eating disorders. However, a 2017 study[9] looked at how THC affects the psychological symptoms of anorexia, including depression and self-reported body care. Additionally, one randomised human trial[10] administered different cannabis products to twenty participants and looked for changes in key hunger hormones such as ghrelin and leptin.

  • Reducing drug side effects

Various medications also cause a slump in appetite as a side effect. For example, chemotherapy often causes severe nausea and vomiting, the lengthy hospital stays can cause muscle wasting in patients, especially the elderly. Researchers are now exploring the potential of cannabis[11] to increase appetite, body weight, body fat, and caloric intake in such cases.

  • Is There a Difference Between Eating, Smoking, or Vaping Cannabis?

Does changing the way you use cannabis affect appetite differently? Inhaled and ingested cannabis definitely produce different effects; whereas inhaled cannabinoids have a fast onset and produce less of an intense psychoactive effect, orally ingested weed acts for a longer duration. The conversation of THC into 11-hydroxy-THC also results in a stronger psychoactive effect. Research around which works best to ramp up appetite remains lacking, but some studies[12] are looking into how different routes of administration impact metabolic hormones such as insulin and ghrelin.

How Appetite Works

What About CBD and Appetite?

We know THC can ramp up appetite, but what about CBD? This cannabinoid doesn’t bind strongly to CB1, but it could influence appetite via other means. Early animal studies suggest that CBD could lead to a reduction in body weight via the CB2 receptor[13]. However, subjective human reports hint that CBD could have the opposite effect and lead to weight gain and increased appetite[14].

Remember when we mentioned the fatty acid PEA above? Well, just like THC is often viewed as the external version of anandamide, PEA is viewed as the endogenous equivalent of CBD. Both of these molecules interfere with ECS enzymes[15] in a way that leads to increased anandamide levels—an endocannabinoid known to activate CB1 and potentially boost appetite.

The Complexity of Appetite, Cannabis, and the ECS

Cannabis constituents work in a very nuanced way in the body. They have to. After all, they’re tweaking and tampering with an overarching and incredibly complex regulatory system in the form of the ECS. Researchers are still getting to grips with how certain cannabinoids impact different parts of the ECS that oversee metabolic functions. While plant components such as THC have a clear impact on appetite, the long-term use of cannabis is actually correlated with weight loss, making things even more confusing for medical cannabis patients looking to stimulate appetite for lengthy periods.

The bottom line: We need more research. Extensive human trials are required to see how different cannabinoids, and different formulas, affect appetite and metabolism. Thankfully, with the increasing acceptance and legalisation of the herb, we’re closer than ever to finding out.

External Resources:
  1. Ghrelin: much more than a hunger hormone https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
  2. Overlapping Brain Circuits for Homeostatic and Hedonic Feeding https://www.cell.com
  3. The Expanded Endocannabinoid System/Endocannabinoidome as a Potential Target for Treating Diabetes Mellitus https://link.springer.com
  4. The role of the pancreatic endocannabinoid system in glucose metabolism https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
  5. Dysregulation of the endocannabinoid system in obesity https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
  6. Rimonabant https://go.drugbank.com
  7. Behavioral Effects of CB2 Cannabinoid Receptor Activation and Its Influence on Food and Alcohol Consumption https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com
  8. Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
  9. The Impact of Δ9-THC on the Psychological Symptoms of Anorexia Nervosa: A Pilot Study https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
  10. Effects of oral, smoked, and vaporized cannabis on endocrine pathways related to appetite and metabolism https://www.nature.com
  11. New Prospect for Cancer Cachexia: Medical Cannabinoid https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
  12. Effects of oral, smoked, and vaporized cannabis on endocrine pathways related to appetite and metabolism https://www.nature.com
  13. Cannabidiol decreases body weight gain in rats: involvement of CB2 receptors https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
  14. A Cross-Sectional Study of Cannabidiol Users https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
  15. Palmitoylethanolamide inhibits the expression of fatty acid amide hydrolase and enhances the anti-proliferative effect of anandamide in human breast cancer cells. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Disclaimer:
This content is for educational purposes only. The information provided is derived from research gathered from external sources.

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Privacy Policy - Royal Queen Seeds

To ensure a safe online environment and guarantee adequate data protection, we strictly comply with all legal requirements. In this privacy statement, we provide information about how and for what purpose data is collected, safety measures, storage periods and contact details.


COMPANY NAME: SNORKEL SPAIN, SL (hereinafter ROYAL QUEEN SEEDS)

C/ Vilar d'Abdelà, 5 (nave 1) CP: 08170 de Montornès del Vallès

+34 937 379 846

support@royalqueenseeds.com


The present Privacy Policy sets out the terms on which we will treat personal data at ROYAL QUEEN SEEDS; this includes any personal data collected through our website https://www.royalqueenseeds.com/ as well as any other data we process in the course of our business activities.

ROYAL QUEEN SEEDS collects the following personal data for the purposes listed below:

SECTION 1 – PERSONAL INFORMATION WE COLLECT

1.1 Account purchases

Account purchases can only be made if you are in possession of a personal account. When you create an account or purchase something from our shop, as part of the buying and selling process we collect the following personal information that you provide to us:

This information is required for delivery. In addition, when you browse our shop, we automatically receive the Internet Protocol (IP) address of your computer. Based on this information, we can optimise your online experience and at the same time protect our online environment.

Purpose of data collection

We collect and store account-related data for the following purposes:

(a) to carry out obligations arising from any contracts between you and us, and to provide you with information, products and services that you may request from us;

(b) to set up, manage and communicate with you about your account and your orders;

(c) to conduct market research and analysis;

(d) to confirm your age and identity, and to detect and prevent fraud.

1.2 Newsletters

With your explicit permission, we may send you newsletters about our shop, new products and other updates. We send newsletters based on your explicit consent. In the event that you purchase a product, and in accordance with current regulations, we may send you commercial communications in accordance with the legitimate interest of our company, always about products or services similar to those you have purchased or contracted. In any case, you may exercise your right of opposition through the channels announced in this Privacy Policy. The following information is collected in relation to the newsletter:

We do not need to know the sex of the person in order to send the newsletter (data minimisation: by law we must ask for data that is strictly necessary to provide the service, and in this case knowing the sex is not necessary to send the newsletter).

Purpose of data collection

The data collected is used to:

(a) personalise our emails, including your name and gender;

(b) provide gender-specific content.

You can withdraw your consent at any time by using the link provided in the newsletter or the contact information provided in section 2.

1.3 Customer service and contact form

In order to provide appropriate support, our customer service employees have access to information related to the account. Consequently, their support will be highly effective and friendly. The data provided in our contact form is used by our CRM provider, SuperOffice. We will only use your details to respond to your message.

SECTION 2 – LEGITIMATE INTEREST

If you have purchased any of our products, please note that we may process your personal data for promotional purposes, based on Royal Queen Seeds' legitimate interest only to offer you products or services from our company and about products or services similar to those you have purchased. You may exercise your right to opt out of future messages by the means set out in this Privacy Policy or through any notification you receive.

2.1 How do you withdraw consent?

If you change your mind, you can withdraw your consent for us to contact you for the purpose of collecting, using, or disclosing your data at any time by reaching out to us at: support@royalqueenseeds.com.

SECTION 3 – DISCLOSURE

We may disclose your personal information if we are required to do so by law or if you breach our Terms of Service.

SECTION 4 – HOW LONG DO WE KEEP YOUR DATA?

At Royal Queen Seeds, we will not retain your data for longer than is necessary for the purposes described in this Policy. Different retention periods apply for different types of data; however, the longest period we will normally hold any personal data is 10 years.

4.1 Account information

Data relating to the account remains relevant for as long as the consumer is in possession of an account. Therefore, the data remains documented for as long as the account exists. When our customers delete an account, the associated data will be deleted within a reasonable period of time. Requests regarding the inspection or correction of stored personal data or the deletion of an account can be sent to support@royalqueenseeds.com.

4.2 Newsletters

In the event that you give us your consent to inform you about our products or services, we will keep your data until you express your wish not to receive any further communications from us. However, we regularly (every month) carry out a relevance check. Registered customers (and their personal information) will be deleted whenever customers do not reply to our request. In addition, our newsletter mailing has an opt-out feature. Consumers can withdraw their consent by using this opt-out feature.

SECTION 5 – COOKIES

Cookies are small information files that notify your computer of previous interactions with our website. These cookies are stored on your hard drive, not on our website. Essentially, when you use our website, your computer displays its cookies to us, informing our site that you have visited before. This allows our website to function more quickly and remember aspects related to your previous visits (such as your username), making your experience more convenient. At Royal Queen Seeds, we use two types of cookies: functional and analytical.

5.1 Functional Cookies

Functional cookies are used to enhance your online experience. Among other things, these cookies track what is added to your shopping cart. The use of these cookies does not require prior authorization.

5.2 Analytical Cookies

Analytical cookies are used for research and market analysis. The data collected with these analytical cookies is anonymous, making it unusable for third parties. The use of these cookies does not require prior authorization.

SECTION 5 – THIRD-PARTY SERVICES

Third-party services are required to conduct transactions and provide our services. In general, the third-party providers we use will only collect, use and disclose your information to the extent necessary to enable them to perform the services they provide to us.

However, certain third-party service providers, such as payment gateways and other payment transaction processors, have their own privacy policies regarding the information we must provide to them for your transactions.

We encourage you to read the privacy policies of these providers so that you can understand how these providers will handle your personal information.

In particular, certain suppliers may be located or have facilities located in a different jurisdiction than yours or ours. Therefore, if you choose to proceed with a transaction involving the services of a third party, your information may be subject to the laws of the jurisdiction in which that service provider or its facilities are located.

Once you leave our website or are redirected to a third-party website or application, you are no longer governed by this Privacy Policy or the Terms of Service of our website.

Web analytics service (anonymous data)

On this website we have integrated an element of a web analytics service (with anonymisation functionality). Web analytics can be defined as the gathering, processing and analysis of data about the behaviour of visitors to websites. An analytics service collects, among other things, data about which website a person came from (the so-called referrer), which sub-pages they visited or how often and for how long they visited a sub-page. Web analytics is mainly used for website optimisation and for a cost–benefit analysis of internet advertising.

Courier service

To complete deliveries we use a courier service. This courier service carries out the delivery between our company and the consumer's home. To complete these logistics, the company requires access to the consumer's name and address information.

Mailing service

Royal Queen Seeds uses a third-party mail service provider to send its newsletter. This provider has access to limited account information related to opt-in consent (e.g. email address).

Marketing services

Royal Queen Seeds has the support of a company that specialises in marketing and communication activities. Their access to personal information is very limited and mostly anonymous.

Payment services

At Royal Queen Seeds we use external payment services to handle our transactions (e.g. credit card payments).

SECTION 6 – SECURITY

To protect your personal information, we take reasonable precautions and follow industry standard best practices to ensure that it is not inappropriately lost, misused, accessed, disclosed, altered or destroyed.

If you provide us with your credit card information, the information is encrypted using secure socket layer technology (SSL) and stored using AES-256 encryption. Although no method of transmission over the internet or electronic storage is 100% secure, we follow all PCI-DSS requirements and implement additional industry standards that are commonly accepted. Information related to the account is protected with a hashing method. This method transforms the information into a generated hash. As a result, confidential information is protected and invisible, even to us. In addition, our databases are exceptionally protected against unauthorised access. For example, access to the database is only possible and permitted via approved IP addresses (e.g. from Royal Queen Seeds headquarters). Other attempts and addresses are rejected at all times.

Furthermore, data is anonymised as much as possible, so it cannot be directly linked to a specific consumer. With this data, however, we may be able to carry out market research and analysis. In addition, the third parties concerned (e.g. mailing service) are examined prior to our collaboration, comply with the GDPR from the EU and receive a processing agreement. Within Royal Queen Seeds, employees are assigned different access permissions. Specific permission provides access only to information that is strictly required to perform a task. Digital security measures are subject to change and must meet high requirements to ensure the safety of online customers. That is why, at Royal Queen Seeds, we appoint a security officer. Regular verification and improvement of security measures (where necessary) are part of the role.

SECTION 7 – CHANGES TO THIS PRIVACY POLICY

We reserve the right to modify this Privacy Policy at any time, so please check back regularly. Changes and clarifications will be effective immediately upon being published on the Website. If we make substantial changes to this policy, we will notify you here that it has been updated so you will know what information we collect, how we use it and under what circumstances, if any, we use and/or disclose it.

SECTION 8 – YOU HAVE THE RIGHT TO: